The first was the Palestine canon which is identical to the Protestant Old Testament . According to the Catechism of the Catholic Church , Catholic ecclesiology professes the Catholic Church to be the sole Church of Christ i.e., the one true church defined as one, holy, catholic , and apostolic in the Four Marks of the Church in the Nicene Creed. The English word canon comes from the Greek kann, meaning "rule" or "measuring stick".The use of the word "canon" to refer to a set of religious scriptures was first used by David Ruhnken, in the 18th century. In his Epistola Festalis (A.D. 367) the illustrious Bishop of Alexandria ranks all of Origens N. T. Antilegomena, which are identical with the deuteros, boldly inside the Canon, without noticing any of the scruples about them. 5. The N. T. quotations from the Old are in general characterized by a freedom and elasticity regarding manner and source which further tend to diminish their weight as proofs of canonicity. Required fields are marked *, When calculated using the Gregorian calendar, Easter is guaranteed to happen on a Sunday between the 22nd and the 25th of April. All through the Middle Ages we find evidence of hesitation about the character of the deuterocanonicals. And it is significant of the general trend of ecclesiastical authority that not only were works which formerly enjoyed high standing at broadminded Alexandriathe Apocalypse of Peter and the Acts of Paulinvolved by Athanasius with the apocrypha, but even some that Origen had regarded as inspiredBarnabas, the Shepherd of Hermas, the Didachewere ruthlessly shut out under the same damnatory title. The Torah is also called the _____ Prophets. Cyprians testimony to the non-canonicity of Hebrews and James is confirmed by Commodian, another African writer of the period. But it should be remembered that the inspired character of the N. T. is a Catholic dogma, and must therefore in some way have been revealed to, and taught by, Apostles.Assuming that Apostolic authorship is a positive criterion of inspiration, two inspired Epistles of St. Paul have been lost. No doubt, this view arose due to the so-called "Jewish Alexandrian canon" theory. In fact, for the earliest Christians the Gospel of Christ, in the wide sense above noted, was not to be classified with, because transcending, the O. T. It was not until about the middle of the second century that under the rubric ofScripturethe New Testament writings were assimilated to the Old; the authority of the N. T. as the Word preceded and produced its authority as a new Scripture. The day after Easter, known as Easter Monday, is observed as a public holiday in many nations where Christianity [], Ash Wednesday marks the beginning of Lent, which is a season of prayer, fasting, and giving alms that lasts for forty days and finishes at sundown on Holy Thursday.It is a time of preparation for the celebration of the Resurrection of the Lord that takes place on Easter.We seek the Lord in prayer by reading []. The N. T. in its canonical aspect has little history between the first years of the fifth and the early part of the sixteenth century. Cardinal Cajetan had approvingly quoted an unfavorable comment of St. Jerome regarding Mark, xvi, 9-20; Erasmus had rejected the section on the Adulterous Woman as unauthentic. https://www.britannica.com/topic/Alexandrian-canon, biblical literature: The Alexandrian canon. 7). the foundation of the so-called Alexandrian Canon, a selection in each genre of literary work that contemporaries considered to be models of excellence. Updates? An act of the Synod of Toledo, held in 633, states that many contest the authority of that book, and orders it to be read in the churches under pain of excommunication. But for the Catholic Church as a whole the content of the N. T. was definitely fixed, and the discussion closed. The whole Biblical Canon therefore consists of the canons of the Old and New Testaments. During this intermediate age the use of St. Jeromes new version of the O. T. (the Vulgate) became widespread in the Occident. They adduce the fact that certain deutero books were quoted with veneration, and even in a few cases as Scripture, by Palestinian or Babylonian doctors; but the private utterances of a few rabbis cannot outweigh the consistent Hebrew tradition of the canon, attested by Josephusalthough he himself was inclined to Hellenismand even by the Alexandrian-Jewish author of IV Esdras. St. Jerome, always prepossessed in favor of Oriental positions in matters Biblical, exerted then a happy influence in regard to the N. T.; if he attempted to place any Eastern restriction upon the Canon of the O. T. his effort failed of any effect. The Decretum pro Jacobitis contains a complete list of the books received by the Church as inspired, but omits, perhaps advisedly, the terms canon and canonical. The Council of Florence therefore taught the inspiration of all the Scriptures, but did not formally pass on their eanonicity. The tradition which Geiger describes as the life-giving soul of Judaism -- the daughter of revelation, enjoying the same rights with her mother -- a spiritual power that continues ever to work -- an emanation from the divine Spirit -- is not, indeed, the thing which has stiffened Judaism into Rabbinism; but neither is it tradition proper; it is reason working upon revelation, and moulding it into a new system. The chief cause of this phenomenon in the West is to be sought in the influence, direct and indirect, of St. Jeromes depreciating Prologue. The latter remained for more than a century banished from the sacred collections as cur-rent in Antioch and Constantinople. Since the traditionalists infer the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch from other sources, they can rely for proof of an early collection of these books chiefly on Deuteronomy, xxxi, 9-13, 24-26, where there is question of a book of the law, delivered by Moses to the priests with the command to keep it in the ark and read it to the people on the feast of Tabernacles. What Is Lent About In The Catholic Church. On the other hand, the Oriental Church imported a Western authority which had canonized the disputed books, viz., the decree of Carthage, and from this time there is an increasing tendency among the Greeks to place the deuteros on the same level with the othersa tendency, however, due more to forgetfulness of the old distinctions than to deference to the Council of Carthage. The Canon of the New Testament, like that of the Old, is the result of a development, of a process at once stimulated by disputes with doubters, both within and without the Church, and retarded by certain obscurities and natural hesitations, and which did not reach its final term until the dogmatic definition of the Tridentine Council. The influence of Origens and Athanasiuss restricted canon naturally spread to the West. We are sure, of course, that all the Hagiographa were eventually, before the death of the last Apostle, divinely committed to the Church as Holy Scriptures, but we know this as a truth of faith, and by theological deduction, not from documentary evidence in the N. T. The latter fact has a bearing against the Protestant claim that Jesus approved and transmitted en bloc an already defined Bible of the Palestinian Synagogue. In this connection must be mentioned the argument from the Samaritan Pentateuch to establish that the Esdrine Canon took in nothing beyond the Hexateuch, i.e. The books of the second and third divisions have been redistributed and arranged according to Read More But against Harnack we are able to trace the Tetra-morph as a sacred collection back to a more remote period. Indeed it is quite reasonable to suppose that its early exclusion from the East Syrian Church was an outer wave of the extreme reactionist movement of the Alogesalso of Asia Minorwho branded Apocalypse and all the Johannine writings as the work of the heretic Cerinthus. Jude had been recognized by Tertullian, but, strangely, it had lost its position in the African Church, probably owing to its citation of the apocryphal Henoch. There are no indications in the N. T. of a systematic plan for the distribution of the Apostolic compositions, any more than there is of a definite new Canon bequeathed by the Apostles to the Church, or of a strong self-witness to Divine inspiration. Its sole absolute criterion, therefore, is the Holy inspiring Spirit, witnessing decisively to Itself, not in the subjective experience of individual souls, as Calvin maintained, neither in the doctrinal and spiritual tenor of Holy Writ itself, according to Luther, but through the constituted organ and custodian of Its revelations, the Church. A glance at the Canon as exhibited in the authorities of the African, or Carthaginian, Church, will complete our brief survey of this period of diversity and discussion: Origen and his school.Origens travels gave him exceptional opportunities to know the traditions of widely separated portions of the Church and made him very conversant with the discrepant attitudes toward certain parts of the N. T. He divided books with Biblical claims into three classes: (a) those universally received; (b) those whose Apostolicity was questioned; (c) apocryphal works. Yet it was known at Rome as early as St. Clement, as the latters epistle attests. are not entirely identical in the books they contain. In St. John Chrysostoms ample expositions of the Scriptures there is not a single clear trace of the Apocalypse, while he seems to implicitly exclude the four smaller EpistlesII Peter, II and III John, and Judefrom the number of the canonical books. Eusebius was the first to call attention to important variations in the text of the Gospels, viz., the presence in some copies and the absence in others of the final paragraph of Mark, the passage of the Adulterous Woman, and the Bloody Sweat. In appreciating his attitude we must remember that Jerome lived long in Palestine, in an environment where everything outside the Jewish Canon was suspect, and that, moreover, he had an excessive veneration for the Hebrew text, the Hebraica veritas as he called it. The Book of Daniel was relegated to the Hagiographa as a work of the prophetic gift indeed, but not of the permanent prophetic office. "The Old Testament: A Christian Canon." Abdias, Nahum, and Sophonias, while not directly honored, are included in the quotations from the other minor Prophets by virtue of the traditional unity of that collection. The dominant account of Alexandrian cosmopolitanism elevates things European in the city's culture and simultaneously places things Egyptian under the sign of decline. The Tridentine order has been retained in the official Vulgate and vernacular Catholic Bibles. The mention of three classes is not opposed to their presence in the third. Josephus, indeed, gives another, based on the nature of the separate books, not on MSS. These fourth- and fifth-century Greek Old Testament manuscripts have different lengths. The introduction of Hebrews was an especial crux, and a reflection of this is found in the first Carthage list, where the much vexed Epistle, though styled of St. Paul, is still numbered separately from the time-consecrated group of thirteen. The trend of the seventeenth century Lutheran theologians was to class all these writings as of doubtful, or at least inferior, authority. As to whole books, the Protestant doubts were the only ones the Fathers of Trent took cognizance of; there was not the slightest hesitation regarding the authority of any entire document. The sub-Apostolic writings of Clement, Polycarp, the author of the Epistle of Barnabas, of the pseudo-Clementine homilies, and the Shepherd of Hermas, contain implicit quotations from, or allusions to, all the deuterocanonicals except Baruch (which anciently was often united with Jeremias) and I Machabees and the additions to Daniel. The latter phrase proves that the passive sense of canon, viz., that of a regulated and defined collection, was already in use, and this has remained the prevailing connotation of the word in ecclesiastical literature. But it is needless in the present article to array the full force of these and other witnesses, since even rationalistic scholars like Harnack admit the canonicity of the quadriform Gospel between the years 140-175. Protocanonical (protos, first) is a conventional word denoting those sacred writings which have been always received by Christendom without dispute. The larger Canon of the O. T. passed through the Apostles hands to the Church tacitly, by way of their usage and whole attitude toward its components; an attitude which, for most of the sacred writings of the Old Testament, reveals itself in the New, and for the rest, must have exhibited itself in oral utterances, or at least in tacit approval of the special reverence of the faithful. This canon came into existence and was in use before the time of Christ. THE CANON OF THE CHRISTIAN OLD TESTAMENT. Catholics , on the other hand, do not base their beliefs on the Bible alone. But evidence will presently be given that from days touching on those of the last Apostles there were two well defined bodies of sacred writings of the N. T., which constituted the firm, irreducible, universal minimum, and the nucleus of its complete Canon: these were the Four Gospels, as the Church now has them, and thirteen Epistles of St. PaultheEvangeliumand theApostolicum. By implication it had defined that Bibles plenary inspiration also. What Is Lent About In The Catholic Church. There is a current friendly to them, another one distinctly unfavorable to their authority and sacredness, while wavering between the two are a number of writers whose veneration for these books is tempered by some perplexity as to their exact standing, and among these we note St. Thomas Aquinas. While use of the word purgatory (in Latin purgatorium) as a noun appeared perhaps only between 1160 and 1180, giving rise to the idea of purgatory as a place (what Jacques Le Goff called the birth of purgatory ), the Roman Catholic tradition of purgatory as a transitional condition has a history that dates back. It is quite possible that the hymns mean the Psalms; and the other books, the rest of the hagiographa. Of these works, Tobias and Judith were written originally in Aramaic, perhaps in Hebrew; Baruch and I Machabees in Hebrew, while Wisdom and II Machabees were certainly composed in Greek. The order of books follows that of the Bull of Eugenius IV (Council of Florence), except that Acts was moved from a place before Apocalypse to its present position, and Hebrews put at the end of St. Pauls Epistles. Russian and other branches of the schismatic Greek Church have a N. T. identical with the Catholic. Yet the force of the direct and indirect employment of O. T. writings by the New is slightly impaired by the disconcerting truth that at least one of the N. T. authors, St. Jude, quotes explicitly from the Book of Henoch, long universally recognized as apocryphal, see verse 14, while in verse 9 he borrows from another apocryphal narrative, the Assumption of Moses. There is no sign that the Western Church ever positively repudiated any of the N. T. deuteros; not admitted from the beginning, these had slowly advanced towards a complete acceptance there. The writer is shut up within the old national ideas, and leans upon the writings in which they are expressed. Regarding the sources of canonicity among the Hebrew ancients, we are left to surmise an analogy. This variation is witnessed to, and the discussion stimulated by, two of the most learned men of Christian antiquity, Origen, and Eusebius of Caesarea, the ecclesiastical historian. The deuteros are still appended to the German Bibles printed under the auspices of the orthodox Lutherans. St. Irenaeus, always a witness of the first rank, on account of his broad acquaintance with ecclesiastical tradition, vouches that Baruch was deemed on the same footing as Jeremias, and that the narratives of Susanna and Bel and the Dragon were ascribed to Daniel. In Antioch and Syria the attitude was more favorable. Positive arguments are deduced from the N. T. to establish that a permanent propheticalcharisma(seeCharismata) was enjoyed by the Apostles through. The works of the Latin Fathers of the periodJerome, Hilary of Poitiers, Lucifer of Sardinia, Philaster of Bresciamanifest the changed attitude toward Hebrews, James, Jude, II Peter, and III John. Canon. (SeeEpistle to the Hebrews;Epistles of Saint Peter. Like the O. T., the New has its deuterocanonical books and portions of books, their canonicity having formerly been a subject of some controversy in the Church. 666 sqq., and A Christian Apology, II, tr. The identity of these memoirs with our Gospels is established by the certain traces of three, if not all, of them scattered through St. Justins works; it was not yet the age of explicit quotations. It should be noticed, however, that the document to which this catalogue was prefixed is capable of being understood as having an anti-Jewish polemical purpose, in which case Melitos restricted canon is explicable on another ground (see Comely, Introductio, I, 75 sqq.). The rejection of these books by the Russian theologians and authorities is a lapse which began early in the eighteenth century (cf. The remaining Books.In this formative period the Epistle to the Hebrews did not obtain a firm footing in the Canon of the Universal Church. The former set little value on the prevalent consciousness of the race that the spirit of prophecy was extinct; their view of the Spirit's operation was larger. It is pertinent to ask the motives which impelled the Hellenist Jews to thus, virtually at least, canonize this considerable section of literature, some of it very recent, and depart so radically from the Palestinian tradition. We are therefore forced to admit that the leaders of Alexandrian Judaism showed a notable independence of Jerusalem tradition and authority in permitting the sacred boundaries of the Canon, which certainly had been fixed for the Prophets, to be broken by the insertion of an enlarged Daniel and the Epistle of Baruch. Accordingly, for the primitive Church,evangelical characterwas the test of Scriptural sacredness. The West began to realize that the ancient Apostolic Churches of Jerusalem and Antioch, indeed the whole Orient, for more than two centuries had acknowledged Hebrews and James as inspired writings of Apostles, while the venerable Alexandrian Church, supported by the prestige of Athanasius, and the powerful Patriarchate of Constantinople, with the scholarship of Eusebius behind its judgment, had canonized all the disputed Epistles. The result of this tendency among the Greeks was that about the beginning of the twelfth century they possessed a canon identical with that of the Latins, except that it took in the apocryphal III Machabees. Josephus is the earliest writer who numbers the books of the Jewish Bible. An objection of a speculative kind is derived from the very nature of inspirationad scribendum, which seems to demand a specific impulse from the Holy Ghost in each case, and preclude the theory that it could be possessed as a permanent gift, or charisma. Catholic Bible has 46 books of Old and 27 books of the New Testament. And yet these doubts must be regarded as more or less academic. If, as seems certain, the exact content of the broader catalogue of the O. T. Scriptures (that comprising the deutero books) cannot be established from the N. T., a fortiori there is no reason to expect that it should reflect the precise extension of the narrower and Judaistic Canon. These books, he adds, are read in the churches for the edification of the people, and not for the confirmation of revealed doctrine. II Esdras, viiix; II Machabees, ii, 13, in the Greek original.) Generally, the term is applied to writings that were not part of the canon. The first was the Palestine canon which is identical to the Protestant Old Testament . The process by which they conserved the old belief helped to quench its spirit, so that it became an antique skeleton, powerless beside the new civilization which had followed the wake of Alexander's conquests. It is a singular fact that while the East, mainly through St. Jeromes pen, exerted a disturbing and negative influence on Western opinion regarding the O. T., the same influence, through probably the same chief intermediary, made for the completeness and integrity of the N. T. Canon. There are both psychological and historical reasons against the supposition that the O. T. Canon grew spontaneously by a kind of instinctive public recognition of inspired books. The idea of a New Testament: The question of the principle that dominated the practical canonization of the N. T. Scriptures has already been discussed under (b). In Syria the Nestorians possess a Canon almost identical with the final one of the ancient East Syrians; they exclude the four smaller Catholic Epistles and Apocalypse. The Catholic N. T., as defined by the Council of Trent, does not differ, as regards the books contained, from that of all Christian bodies at present. The Alexandrian tradition is represented by the weighty authority of Origen. the spurious Epistle to the Laodiceans is found among the canonical letters, and, in a few instances, the apocryphal III Corinthians. The three Epistles of St. John and II Peter appear, but after each stands the noteuna sola, added by an almost contemporary hand, and evidently in protest against the reception of these Antilegomena, which; presumably, had found a place in the official list recently, but whose right to be there was seriously questioned. Lucian himself had acquired his education at Edessa, the metropolis of Eastern Syria, which had, as already remarked, a singularly curtailed Canon. So while the intuitive sense and increasingly reverent consciousness of the faithful element of Israel could, and presumably did, give a general impulse and direction to authority, we must conclude that it was the word of official authority which actually fixed the limits of the Hebrew Canon, and here, broadly speaking, the advanced and conservative exegetes meet on common ground. Why do the Catholics use these 7 books ? Being dogmatic in its purport, it implies that the Apostles bequeathed the same Canon to the Church, as a part of the depositum fidei. Interrogating how Alexandria became enshrined as the exemplary cosmopolitan space in the Middle East, this book mounts a radical critique of Eurocentric conceptions of cosmopolitanism. A singular exception to the universality of the above-described substance of the N. T. was the Canon of the primitive East Syrian Church, which did not contain any of the Catholic Epistles or Apocalypse. Previously, older books of the Bible often stressed sheol ("the grave"), and did not dwell on a potential afterlife. New World Translation of the Holy Scriptures. Marcion, the heretic refuted by Justin in a lost polemic, as we know from Tertullian, instituted a criticism of Gospels bearing the names of Apostles and disciples of the Apostles, and a little earlier (c. 120) Basilides, the Alexandrian leader of a Gnostic sect, wrote a commentary on the Gospel which is known by the allusions to it in the Fathers to have comprised the writings of the Four Evangelists. Presbyterians and Calvinists in general, especially since the Westminster Synod of 1648, have been the most uncompromising enemies of any recognition, and owing to their influence the British and Foreign Bible Society decided in 1826 to refuse to distribute Bibles containing the Apocrypha. ), when, moved by the fact that the Septuagint had become the O. T. of the Church, it was put under ban by the Jerusalem Scribes, who were actuated moreover (thus especially Kaulen) by hostility to the Hellenistic largeness of spirit and Greek composition of our deuterocanonical books.. Eight of St. Pauls writings are cited by Polycarp; St. Ignatius of Antioch ranked the Apostles above the Prophets, and must therefore have allowed the written compositions of the former at least an equal rank with those of the latter (Ad Philadelphios, v). Additionally, this date must be within about seven days of the astronomical full moon. The weight of Catholic theological opinion is deservedly against mere Apostolicity as a sufficient criterion of inspiration. The probabilities favor Hebrew as the original language of the addition to Esther, and Greek for the enlargements of Daniel. As we have only a few fragments of Papias, preserved by Eusebius, it cannot be alleged that he is silent about other parts of the N. T. 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